A brief history of lbian, gay, bisexual, and transgenr social movements

Contents:

• GOVERNMENT PERSECUTN OF THE LGBTQ COMMUNY IS WISPREADFRANK KAMENY APPEALED HIS 1957 FIRG BY THE U.S. ARMY THE FIRST KNOWN LEGAL PROCEEDGS THAT ED PRO-LGBTQ+ ARGUMENTS. THE 1950S WERE PERILO TIM FOR DIVIDUALS WHO FELL OUTSI OF SOCIETY’S LEGALLY ALLOWED NORMS RELATG TO GENR OR SEXUALY. THERE WERE MANY NAM FOR THE DIVIDUALS, CLUDG THE CLIL “HOMOSEXUAL,” A TERM POPULARIZED BY PNEERG GERMAN PSYCHIATRIST RICHARD VON KRAFFT-EBG. IN THE U.S., PROFSNALS OFTEN ED THE TERM “VERT.” IN THE MID-19TH CENTURY, MANY CI FORMED “VICE SQUADS” AND POLICE OFTEN LABELED THE PEOPLE THEY ARRTED “SEXUAL PERVERTS.” THE ERNMENT’S PREFERRED TERM WAS “VIANT,” WHICH ME WH LEGAL NSEQUENC FOR ANYONE SEEKG A REER PUBLIC SERVICE OR THE ARY. “HOMOPHILE” WAS THE TERM PREFERRED BY SOME EARLY ACTIVISTS, SMALL WORKS OF WOMEN AND MEN WHO YEARNED FOR MUNY AND FOUND CREATIVE WAYS TO RIST LEGAL AND SOCIETAL PERSECUTN. WH DRAFT ELIGIBILY OFFICIALLY LOWERED OM 21 TO 18 1942, WORLD WAR II BROUGHT TOGETHER LNS OF PEOPLE OM AROUND THE UNTRY–MANY OF WHOM WERE LEAVG THEIR HOME STAT FOR THE FIRST TIME–TO FILL THE RANKS OF THE ARY AND THE FERAL WORKFORCE. AMONG THEM WERE GAYS AND LBIANS, WHO QUIETLY FORMED KSHIPS ON ARY BAS AROUND THE WORLD. THEY SERVED SILENCE, ALWAYS FEARFUL THAT REVEALG THEIR INTY TO A POTENTIAL NEW PARTNER OR IEND ULD GET THEM DISHONORABLY DISCHARGED, IF NOT URT MARTIALLED. THE ARY FIRST VELOPED FORMAL PUNISHMENTS FOR HOMOSEXUAL BEHAVR DURG WWI, AND OVER TIME VELOPED CREASGLY PROBG MEANS TO ROOT OUT “VIANTS” OM WH AND PREVENT THEM OM ENLISTG. IN 1953, PRINT DWIGHT EISENHOWER IMPLEMENTED NEW STANDARDS FOR CIVIL SERVANTS THAT BANNED HOMOSEXUALS OM SERVG MANY POSNS. THE LAVENR SRE THOANDS OF MEMBERS OF THE ARY AND CIVIL SERVANTS WOULD BE DISMISSED BEE OF L AGAST HOMOSEXUAL BEHAVR. A FEW ANECDOT SEEMED TO SUPPORT THE ERNMENT’S REASONG HOMOSEXUALS WERE A GRAVE SECURY THREAT BEE THEY ULD BE BLACKMAILED BY FOREIGN ERNMENTS. THE IA WAS HARD TO UNTER AS FEW HOMOSEXUALS WERE A POSN TO PUBLICLY DISCS THEIR INTY.  IN THE YEARS FOLLOWG WWII, HOMOSEXUALS WERE MORE DIRECTLY TIED TO MUNISM. THE COLD WAR PERD GAVE RISE TO SENATOR JOSEPH MCCARTHY, WHO EXPLICLY TARGETED “VIANTS,” NOT ONLY ERNMENT SERVICE, BUT ALSO HOLLYWOOD AS PART OF A LARGER PROJECT TO RID AMERI OF S UNSIRABLE ELEMENTS. THE HIGHLY PUBLICIZED EFFORT TO RID THE U.S. OF MUNISTS ME TO BE KNOWN AS THE “RED SRE,” WHILE THE EFFORT TO DISMISS HOMOSEXUALS WOULD LATER BE TERMED THE “LAVENR SRE.”THERE WERE NO OUT LGBTQ+ ELECTED OFFICIALS THE ENTIRE UNTRY.PLI MURRAY PUBLISH BOOK OUTLG CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENT STRATEGY
• GAY RIGHTS
• A GLIMPSE OF GAY PRI THE 1950S
• HOW GAY CULTURE BLOSSOMED DURG THE ROARG TWENTI
• GAY PRI THE 1950S: THE PHOTO BOOTH AS A SAFE SPACE
• RESISTANCE! HOW UNRGROUND GAY LIFE THRIVED THE 1950S
• LIVG BLACK & GAY THE ’50SVISNARYIN THE CENTENARY YEAR OF HIS BIRTH, THOR JAM BALDW HAS ONLY GAED STATURE FOR THE WISDOM WH WHICH HE WROTE ABOUT BEG BLACK AND GAY WHEN WASN’T EASY BEG EHER.ALA MABANCKOUUPDATED APR. 14, 2017 1:21PM EDT / PUBLISHED DEC. 03, 2014 5:45AM EST ULF ANRSEN/GETTY IMAGYOU BSHED OFF LABELS LIKE “NEGRO,” “GHETTO BOY,” “BASTARD,” AND, MORE THAN ANYTHG, “FAGGOT.”IF JAM CAMPBELL, HIS BGRAPHY OF YOU, FIGHTS AGAST THE LATTER LABEL PARTICULAR—AN EASY SULT FOR MOST OF YOUR ADVERSARI— IS BEE HE IS AWARE THAT YOUR HOMOSEXUALY FOR YOU IS THE EXPRSN OF YOUR EEDOM, A WAY OF BEG YOURSELF, AND NOT THE EXPRSN OF SOME VIATN OR, HIS TERMS, OF SOME “GEIC AMBIVALENCE,” FNS THAT DISTORT THE UNRSTANDG OF ANY DIVIDUAL.IN YOUR DAY, THE NTRADICTN WAS OBV: ON THE ONE HAND, YOUR UNTRY HELD UP DIVIDUAL EEDOM TO THE LEVEL OF A MOCRATIC IAL, BUT, ON THE OTHER, SANCTNED RACIAL SEGREGATN. CONSEQUENTLY, AS DWIGHT A. MCBRI ATTTS, THE IOLOGIL NONTATN BETWEEN PALIST AND MUNIST FACTNS WOULD ALTER THE DISURSE ON SEX, RACE, AND THE AIN-AMERIN MUNY. YOU WOULD HAVE A VOICE THIS DISURSE … IN FACT, AFTER WELG YOUR ARTICLE “EVERYBODY’S PROTT NOVEL” TO S FIRST EDN, THE JOURNAL ZERO PUBLISHED ANOTHER OF YOUR ARTICL THE FOLLOWG ISSUE, ENTLED “PRERVATN OF INNOCENCE.” IT IS A BRIEF TEXT WH PHILOSOPHIL LEANGS THAT REVOLV AROUND THE NOTNS OF NORMALY AND ABNORMALY HUMAN NATURE. THE SAGA OF THE HOMOSEXUAL, ACRDG TO YOUR ANALYSIS, IS THAT HE MT ALWAYS NONT THE MOST PROFOUND GRIEF: THAT HE IS ABNORMAL BEE HE HAS OPTED TO TURN HIMSELF AWAY OM HIS ORIGAL FUNCTN, THAT OF A PROCREATOR, FOR A RELATNSHIP BOUND TO STERILY. SCE HOMOSEXUALY IS AS OLD AS THE HUMAN RACE, THE MOST SUABLE ATTU WOULD BE TO NSIR AS A MATERIAL PONENT OF NORMALY. SEX, WH S MYTHS, NONTS WH THE PLEXY OF OUR BEHAVRS AND OUR BELIEFS. YOU REMD THAT MEN AND WOMEN HAVE IMPERFECTN MON, AND ARE DIVISIBLE. BEE OF THIS, TAMPERG WH THE NATURE OF ONE HAS AN IMPACT ON THE NATURE OF THE OTHER. THEIR ABSOLUTE SEPARATN—MAN HAVG TO FORT HIMSELF HIS MASCULY, AND WOMAN ASSURG HER OWN FUNCTN AS A WOMAN—WOULD STROY EACH OF THEIR SOULS. ALTHOUGH IS OFTEN REPEATED THAT WOMEN ARE MORE GENTLE, LEGENDS SUATE THAT THEY MAY BE “MYTHILLY AND EVEN HISTORILLY, TREACHERO.” NOVELS, POETRY, THEATER, AND FABL HAVE SOMETIM ENTERTAED THIS PARADOX, WHICH ONLY PERSONAL EXPERIENCE IS PABLE OF FIRST CLARIFYG, THEN BLOCKG YOU YOUR TRACKS. “THIS IS A PARADOX WHICH EXPERIENCE ALONE IS ABLE TO ILLUMATE AND THIS EXPERIENCE IS NOT MUNIBLE ANY LANGUAGE THAT WE KNOW. THE REGNN OF THIS PLEXY IS THE SIGNAL OF MATURY; MARKS THE ATH OF THE CHILD AND THE BIRTH OF THE MAN.” “PRERVATN OF INNOCENCE” REMAS THE VERY FIRST TEXT WHICH YOU SPEAK EXPLICLY ABOUT HOMOSEXUALY, BEFORE NTUG TO EXPLORE THIS THEME YOUR FOLLOWG WORKS, MOST NOTABLY YOUR SEND NOVEL, GVANNI’S ROOM.IN JANUARY 1985, TWO YEARS BEFORE YOUR ATH, YOU PUBLISH ANOTHER ARTICLE, “FREAKS AND THE AMERIN IAL OF MANHOOD,” THE FAMO EROTIC AMERIN MAGAZE, PLAYBOY, FOUND 1953 BY HUGH HEFNER. THIS MONTHLY PERDIL WEL WRERS OM TIME TO TIME; THE WORLD’S LEADG WRERS HAVE PUBLISHED HERE, CLUDG VLADIMIR NABOKOV, IAN FLEMG, AND MARGARET ATWOOD.IN “FREAKS AND THE AMERIN IAL OF MANHOOD,” YOU EXAME THE NOTN OF MASCULY BY DRAWG ON A MULTU OF TOBGRAPHIL ELEMENTS. YOU LOOK AT YOUR OWN EXPERIENCE AS A HOMOSEXUAL AND TRY TO UNRSTAND THE MALIC GAZE OF THE OTHER, PARTICULAR THE AMERIN HETEROSEXUAL MALE.STARTG WH THE IA OF ANDROGYNY, YOU ARGUE THAT THERE IS A WOMAN EVERY MAN, AND VICE VERSA. AS A NSEQUENCE, “… LOVE BETWEEN A MAN AND A WOMAN, OR LOVE BETWEEN ANY TWO HUMAN BEGS, WOULD NOT BE POSSIBLE DID WE NOT HAVE AVAILABLE TO THE SPIRUAL ROURC OF BOTH SEX.” HOWEVER THE AMERIN SEXUAL IAL IS TIMATELY RELATED TO A CERTA IA OF MASCULY. IT IS THIS IAL THAT CREAT, AMONG OTHER THGS, “… WBOYS AND INDIANS, GOOD GUYS AND BAD GUYS, PUNKS AND STUDS, TOUGH GUYS AND SOFTI, BUTCH AND FAGGOT, BLACK AND WHE.” THE YOUNG, AMERIN MAN WILL THEREFORE VELOP WH THIS IMAGARY PLEX…YOUR FIRST HOMOSEXUAL EXPERIENC—EVEN IF THEY ARE THEN LIMED TO A FEW ENUNTERS—TAKE PLACE THE BARS OF GREENWICH VILLAGE. NEW YORK CY AT THE TIME, ACRDG TO MCBRI, ATTRACTS MEN AND WOMEN WHO ARE EXPLORG AND EXPRSG THEIR SEXUAL DIFFERENCE. IN GREENWICH VILLAGE, YOU AND SEVERAL OTHER “FAGGOTS” ENDURE THE JIB OF THE “MORAL POLICE”: “THERE WERE ONLY ABOUT THREE OF , IF I REMEMBER RRECTLY, WHEN I FIRST H THOSE STREETS, AND I WAS THE YOUNGT, THE MOST VISIBLE, AND THE MOST VULNERABLE.”AT THE AGE OF SIXTEEN THE BAD GUYS CHASE YOU, OFTEN UNR THE AMED AND PLIC WATCH OF POLICEMEN. THIS MAK YOU SAY THAT WAS NOT THE POLICE YOU FEARED, BUT RATHER THE GUYS WHO CID THAT YOU TARNISHED THE RPECTABILY OF THE NEIGHBORHOOD.SEEK SHELTER? WHERE? IN A MOVIE THEATER? THERE YOU HAD TO FEAR THE WANRG HAND OF AN OLR MAN, OR ANOTHER MAN WHO, STANDG ONT OF A DISPLAY OF PORNOGRAPHIC MAGAZ, LOOKS AT YOU WH EY THAT SAY EVERYTHG: “THERE WERE ALL KDS OF MEN, MOSTLY YOUNG AND, THOSE DAYS, ALMOST EXCLIVELY WHE.” RICHARD WRIGHT WOULD NEVER SEE EYE TO EYE WH YOU ABOUT YOUR LIFTYLE. HOMOSEXUALY FOR HIM WAS LKED TO PERVERSN. HE DO NOT SHY AWAY OM GENERALIZATNS, SCE HE REMARKS TO ONE OF HIS IENDS, WHEN TALKG ABOUT YOU, “IT’S ALWAYS THE SAME THG WH THE HOMOS” OR, AGA, “SURE HE N WRE, BUT HE’S A FAGGOT.”***THE PUBLITN OF GVANNI’S ROOM 1953 IS QUE AN EVENT. THERE ARE THREE REASONS FOR THIS: THE NOVEL DO NOT TAKE PLACE AMERI, THERE ARE NO BLACK CHARACTERS, AND THE HOMOSEXUALY OF THE HERO IS CLEARLY STATED.FRANCE IS THE BACKDROP FOR GVANNI’S ROOM, NOT WHOUT REASON. THIS SPATIAL DISPLACEMENT REVEALS YOUR THIRST FOR EEDOM, YOUR SIRE FOR OPENNS AND TO BREAK WH THE PROTT NOVEL. YOUR MA CHARACTER BREAKS EE OM THE ARCHETYPE OF THE AIN-AMERIN NOVEL: DAVID IS NOT BLACK. HE REMBL NOTHG OF JOHN GRIM, YOUR “DOUBLE” GO TELL IT ON THE MOUNTA, NSIRED AT THE TIME TO BE ONE OF THE FIRST BOOKS ABOUT THE BLACK NDN.DAVID EQUENTS THE HOMOSEXUAL I PARIS WHILE HIS FIANCéE, WHE AND AMERIN, IS TRAVELG SPA. THE NOVEL TAK A UNIQUE LOOK AT THE QUT FOR SEXUAL INTY, THIS WAY BUILDG UPON REFLECTNS MA “THE PRERVATN OF INNOCENCE” AND THAT YOU PURSUE, NEAR THE TWILIGHT OF YOUR LIFE, “FREAKS AND THE AMERIN IAL OF MANHOOD.”ON THE BACK VER OF THE FIRST PAPERBACK EDN WE GET A GLIMPSE OF THE MEDIA BUZZ.THE NEW YORK HERALD TRIBUNE CELEBRAT “THE STORY OF A YOUNG AMERIN MAN GRAPPLG SIMULTANEOLY WH THE LOVE OF A MAN AND A WOMAN,” BEFORE ADDG THAT “MR. BALDW NAVIGAT THE ISSU WH AN EXCEPTNAL GREE OF NDOR, AND YET, WH SUCH DIGNY AND TENSY THAT HE AVOIDS THE TRAP OF SENSATNALISM.” THE EVENG STANDARD, FOR THEIR PART, IS EVEN MORE WON OVER: “PROBABLY THE BT AND CERTALY THE MOST ANK NOVEL ABOUT HOMOSEXUALY YEARS …”THE STORY IS HEART WRENCHG, AS MUCH FOR THE CHARACTERS’ ANGUISH AS FOR THE BETY OF THE WRG, RENRED LIVELY AND SENSUAL THROUGH S POETIC TENSY AND THE STRENGTH OF S IMAGERY. RATHER THAN MULLG OVER THE LLECTIVE UNRT OVER THE BLACK NDN, YOU EXPLORE DIVIDUAL SPERATN, THE HOPELS TRAGEDY OF A MAN NONTED WH SOLU AND ACCEPTG A FATE THAT DRIV HIM TO SELF-STCTN. IN THIS LI THE MEANG BEHD THE ENTIRE BODY OF YOUR WORK; UNRSTANDG THE LLECTIVE THROUGH THE DIVIDUAL.GVANNI’S ROOM NEVERTHELS UNLEASHED SOME VERY NEGATIVE REACTNS THE BLACK AMERIN MUNY. THE BLACK PANTHER ACTIVIST ELDRIDGE CLEAVER DO NOT MCE HIS WORDS AND REJECTS PASSG YOUR ENTIRE BODY OF WORK: “THERE IS THE WORK OF JAM BALDW THE MOST AGONIZG, PLETE HATRED FOR BLACKS, PARTICULAR FOR HIMSELF, AND THE MOST SHAMEFUL, ARNT AND SERVILE ATTRACTN TO WH THAN N BE FOUND THE WORK OF ANY OTHER BLACK AMERIN WRER OF OUR DAY.”IS THIS TO SAY THAT THE NOVEL IS AF TO THE CRI OF THE OPPRSED, IMPERV TO THE POWER OF PROTT? IN A FEW L—NO DOUBT QUICKLY FOTTEN BY YOUR OPPONENTS— YOU GIVE A READG OF HISTORY DISTANCED OM THE CLASH OF CIVILIZATNS, WH ALL OF THE PA, BTERNS, HUIATN AND RAPE ENTAILS. AT BASE IS A CRY FOR RENCILIATN, FOR FIVENS AND FOR REMPTN THAT WE HEAR THE CHARACTER DAVID’S NFSN ON THE FIRST PAGE: “MY FACE IS LIKE A FACE YOU HAVE SEEN MANY TIM. MY ANCTORS NQUERED A NTENT, PHG ACROSS ATH-LAN PLAS, UNTIL THEY ME TO AN OCEAN WHICH FACED AWAY OM EUROPE TO A DARKER PAST.”COPYRIGHT © 2014 BY ALA MABANCKOU OM LETTER TO JIMMY (TRANSLATED BY SARA MELI ANSARI). REPRTED BY PERMISSN OF SOFT SKULL PRS, AN IMPRT OF COUNTERPOT.ALA MABANCKOU WAS BORN CONGO-BRAZZAVILLE 1966. HE IS THE THOR OF BROKEN GLASS, MEMOIRS OF A PORCUPE, AND AIN PSYCHO, AMONG OTHERS. HE CURRENTLY DIVIS HIS TIME BETWEEN PARIS AND CALIFORNIA, WHERE HE TEACH FRENCH LERATURE AT UCLA. ALA MABANCKOU
• A BRIEF HISTORY OF LBIAN, GAY, BISEXUAL, AND TRANSGENR SOCIAL MOVEMENTS

GOVERNMENT PERSECUTN OF THE LGBTQ COMMUNY IS WISPREADFRANK KAMENY APPEALED HIS 1957 FIRG BY THE U.S. ARMY THE FIRST KNOWN LEGAL PROCEEDGS THAT ED PRO-LGBTQ+ ARGUMENTS. THE 1950S WERE PERILO TIM FOR DIVIDUALS WHO FELL OUTSI OF SOCIETY’S LEGALLY ALLOWED NORMS RELATG TO GENR OR SEXUALY. THERE WERE MANY NAM FOR THE DIVIDUALS, CLUDG THE CLIL “HOMOSEXUAL,” A TERM POPULARIZED BY PNEERG GERMAN PSYCHIATRIST RICHARD VON KRAFFT-EBG. IN THE U.S., PROFSNALS OFTEN ED THE TERM “VERT.” IN THE MID-19TH CENTURY, MANY CI FORMED “VICE SQUADS” AND POLICE OFTEN LABELED THE PEOPLE THEY ARRTED “SEXUAL PERVERTS.” THE ERNMENT’S PREFERRED TERM WAS “VIANT,” WHICH ME WH LEGAL NSEQUENC FOR ANYONE SEEKG A REER PUBLIC SERVICE OR THE ARY. “HOMOPHILE” WAS THE TERM PREFERRED BY SOME EARLY ACTIVISTS, SMALL WORKS OF WOMEN AND MEN WHO YEARNED FOR MUNY AND FOUND CREATIVE WAYS TO RIST LEGAL AND SOCIETAL PERSECUTN. WH DRAFT ELIGIBILY OFFICIALLY LOWERED OM 21 TO 18 1942, WORLD WAR II BROUGHT TOGETHER LNS OF PEOPLE OM AROUND THE UNTRY–MANY OF WHOM WERE LEAVG THEIR HOME STAT FOR THE FIRST TIME–TO FILL THE RANKS OF THE ARY AND THE FERAL WORKFORCE. AMONG THEM WERE GAYS AND LBIANS, WHO QUIETLY FORMED KSHIPS ON ARY BAS AROUND THE WORLD. THEY SERVED SILENCE, ALWAYS FEARFUL THAT REVEALG THEIR INTY TO A POTENTIAL NEW PARTNER OR IEND ULD GET THEM DISHONORABLY DISCHARGED, IF NOT URT MARTIALLED. THE ARY FIRST VELOPED FORMAL PUNISHMENTS FOR HOMOSEXUAL BEHAVR DURG WWI, AND OVER TIME VELOPED CREASGLY PROBG MEANS TO ROOT OUT “VIANTS” OM WH AND PREVENT THEM OM ENLISTG. IN 1953, PRINT DWIGHT EISENHOWER IMPLEMENTED NEW STANDARDS FOR CIVIL SERVANTS THAT BANNED HOMOSEXUALS OM SERVG MANY POSNS. THE LAVENR SRE THOANDS OF MEMBERS OF THE ARY AND CIVIL SERVANTS WOULD BE DISMISSED BEE OF L AGAST HOMOSEXUAL BEHAVR. A FEW ANECDOT SEEMED TO SUPPORT THE ERNMENT’S REASONG HOMOSEXUALS WERE A GRAVE SECURY THREAT BEE THEY ULD BE BLACKMAILED BY FOREIGN ERNMENTS. THE IA WAS HARD TO UNTER AS FEW HOMOSEXUALS WERE A POSN TO PUBLICLY DISCS THEIR INTY.  IN THE YEARS FOLLOWG WWII, HOMOSEXUALS WERE MORE DIRECTLY TIED TO MUNISM. THE COLD WAR PERD GAVE RISE TO SENATOR JOSEPH MCCARTHY, WHO EXPLICLY TARGETED “VIANTS,” NOT ONLY ERNMENT SERVICE, BUT ALSO HOLLYWOOD AS PART OF A LARGER PROJECT TO RID AMERI OF S UNSIRABLE ELEMENTS. THE HIGHLY PUBLICIZED EFFORT TO RID THE U.S. OF MUNISTS ME TO BE KNOWN AS THE “RED SRE,” WHILE THE EFFORT TO DISMISS HOMOSEXUALS WOULD LATER BE TERMED THE “LAVENR SRE.”THERE WERE NO OUT LGBTQ+ ELECTED OFFICIALS THE ENTIRE UNTRY.PLI MURRAY PUBLISH BOOK OUTLG CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENT STRATEGY

The people are iendly, and we have always been on the ont of LGBTQ+ rights and fightg for eedom to be out and the 1950s, there was no nng water and no electricy, but gay men and women were happy to be roughg bee they were ee to be themselv. If you were gay the cy, you went to the dark and dgy bars, which were n by the Mafia, and at any time uld be raid by the police and you uld be Cherry Grove, the police would leave on the last ferry to the maland at midnight, allowg same-sex dancg and open exprsns of affectn to occur the lol bars and rtrants. Army service World War I, Gerber was spired to create his anizatn by the Scientific-Humanarian Commtee, a “homosexual emancipatn” group ’s small group published a few issu of s newsletter “Friendship and Freedom, ” the untry’s first gay-tert newsletter.

Ernment signated Gerber’s Chigo hoe a Natnal Historic Pk TriangleCorbis/Getty ImagHomosexual prisoners at the ncentratn mp at Sachsenhsen, Germany, wearg pk triangl on their uniforms on December 19, gay rights movement stagnated for the next few s, though LGBT dividuals around the world did e to the spotlight a few example, English poet and thor Radclyffe Hall stirred up ntroversy 1928 when she published her lbian-themed novel, The Well of Lonels. Addnally, 1948, his book Sexual Behavr the Human Male, Aled Ksey proposed that male sexual orientatn li on a ntuum between exclively homosexual to exclively Homophile Years In 1950, Harry Hay found the Mattache Foundatn, one of the natn’s first gay rights group. ”Though started off small, the foundatn, which sought to improve the liv of gay men through discsn groups and related activi, expand after foundg member Dale Jenngs was arrted 1952 for solicatn and then later set ee due to a adlocked the end of the year, Jenngs formed another anizatn lled One, Inc., which weled women and published ONE, the untry’s first pro-gay magaze.

Post Office, which 1954 clared the magaze “obscene” and refed to liver Mattache Society Mattache Foundatn members rtctured the anizatn to form the Mattache Society, which had lol chapters other parts of the untry and 1955 began publishg the untry’s send gay publitn, The Mattache Review. That same year, four lbian upl San Francis found an anizatn lled the Dghters of Bilis, which soon began publishg a newsletter lled The Ladr, the first lbian publitn of any early years of the movement also faced some notable setbacks: the Amerin Psychiatric Associatn listed homosexualy as a form of mental disorr followg year, Print Dwight D. In 1961, Illois beme the first state to do away wh s anti-sodomy laws, effectively crimalizg homosexualy, and a lol TV statn California aired the first documentary about homosexualy, lled The 1965, Dr.

GAY RIGHTS

”In fear of beg shut down by thori, bartenrs would ny drks to patrons spected of beg gay or kick them out altogether; others would serve them drks but force them to s facg away om other ctomers to prevent them om 1966, members of the Mattache Society New York Cy staged a “sip-”—a twist on the “s-” protts of the 1960s— which they vised taverns, clared themselv gay, and waed to be turned away so they uld sue. They were nied service at the Greenwich Village tavern Juli, rultg much publicy and the quick reversal of the anti-gay liquor Stonewall Inn A few years later, 1969, a now-famo event talyzed the gay rights movement: The Stonewall clanste gay club Stonewall Inn was an stutn Greenwich Village bee was large, cheap, allowed dancg and weled drag queens and homels the early hours of June 28, 1969, New York Cy police raid the Stonewall Inn.

" This sign was wrten by the Mattache Society–an early anizatn dited to fightg for gay reportg the events, The New York Daily News rorted to homophobic slurs s tailed verage, nng the headle: “Homo Nt Raid, Queen Be Are Stgg Mad. ”Over the next several nights, gay activists ntued to gather near the Stonewall, takg advantage of the moment to spread rmatn and build the muny that would fuel the growth of the gay rights movement. 1 / 12: NY Daily News Archive/Getty ImagChristopher Street Liberatn Day Shortly after the Stonewall uprisg, members of the Mattache Society spl off to form the Gay Liberatn Front, a radil group that lnched public monstratns, protts and nontatns wh polil officials.

Siar groups followed, cludg the Gay Activists Alliance, Radilbians, and Street Transvt Actn Revolutnari (STAR) 1970, at the one-year anniversary of the Stonewall Rts, New York Cy muny members marched through lol streets memoratn of the event. Activists also turned the once-disreputable Pk Triangle to a symbol of gay Polil Victori The creased visibily and activism of LGBTQ dividuals the 1970s helped the movement make progrs on multiple onts. Addnally, several openly LGBTQ dividuals secured public office posns: Kathy Kozachenko won a seat to the Ann Harbor, Michigan, Cy Council 1974, beg the first out Amerin to be elected to public Milk, who mpaigned on a pro-gay rights platform, beme the San Francis cy supervisor 1978, beg the first openly gay man elected to a polil office asked Gilbert Baker, an artist and gay rights activist, to create an emblem that reprents the movement and would be seen as a symbol of pri.

A GLIMPSE OF GAY PRI THE 1950S

Baker signed and stched together the first rabow flag, which he unveiled at a pri para followg year, 1979, more than 100, 000 people took part the first Natnal March on Washgton for Lbian and Gay Rights. In 1981, the Centers for Disease Control and Preventn published a report about five prevly healthy homosexual men beg fected wh a rare type of 1984, rearchers had intified the e of AIDS—the human immunoficiency vis, or HIV—and the Food and Dg Admistratn licensed the first mercial blood tt for HIV 1985. But after failg to garner enough support for such an open policy, Print Clton 1993 passed the “Don’t Ask, Don’t Tell” (DADT) policy, which allowed gay men and women to serve the ary as long as they kept their sexualy a rights advot cried the Don’t Ask, Don’t Tell policy, as did ltle to stop people om beg discharged on the grounds of their 2011, Print Obama fulfilled a mpaign promise to repeal DADT; by that time, more than 12, 000 officers had been discharged om the ary unr DADT for refg to hi their sexualy.

HOW GAY CULTURE BLOSSOMED DURG THE ROARG TWENTI

Don’t Ask, Don’t Tell was officially repealed on September 20, Marriage and Beyond In 1992, the District of Columbia passed a law that allowed gay and lbian upl to register as domtic partners, grantg them some of the rights of marriage (the cy of San Francis passed a siar ordance three years prr and California would later extend those rights to the entire state 1999) 1993, the hight urt  Hawaii led that a ban on gay marriage may go agast the state’s nstutn.

The law prevented the ernment om grantg feral marriage benefs to same-sex upl and allowed stat to refe to regnize same-sex marriage certifit om other marriage rights backtracked, gay rights advot sred other victori. In 1994, a new anti-hate-crime law allowed judg to impose harsher sentenc if a crime was motivated by a victim’s sexual Matthew Shepard ActCourty of the Matthew Shepard FoundatnMatthew Shepard, who was btally killed a hate crime 2003, gay rights proponents had another b of happy news: the U.

GAY PRI THE 1950S: THE PHOTO BOOTH AS A SAFE SPACE

Gay rights proponents mt also ntent wh an creasg number of “relig liberty” state laws, which allow bs to ny service to LGBTQ dividuals due to relig beliefs, as well as “bathroom laws” that prevent transgenr dividuals om g public bathrooms that don’t rrpond to their sex at birth. Gay Marriage Legalized Massachetts was the first state to legalize gay marriage, and the first legal same-sex marriage was performed on May 17, 2004—a day when seventy-seven other upl across the state also tied the knot. Conservative Jtice Anthony Kennedy sid wh Jtic Ruth Bar Gsburg, Stephen Breyer, Sonia Sotomayor and Elena Kagan favor of same-sex marriage rights, ultimately makg gay marriage legal across the natn on June 2015.

ONE Natnal Gay & Lbian Archiv at the Universy of Southern California Librari, the largt reposory of lbian, gay, bisexual, transgenr and queer materials the world, shared a heartwarmg uple of photos wh Time of two gay men showg affectn a photo booth durg the early 1950s honor of LGBT Pri public displays of affectn by same-sex upl are monplace today, the fact that this picture was taken 1953 - a time when LGBT people uld be arrted for simply holdg hands wh someone of the same sex - mak a powerful and betiful image monstratg the spir of LGBT Pri. Moreover, to be troubled by your sexualy was, as Edmund Bergler argued, nrotic homosexualy; and those who were at ease and therefore more likely to be open about uld be tegorized unr perverted homosexualy. Gaynor and Adrian were succsful durg a time when any sort of evince of their homosexualy would have hurt their reers, so ’s not surprisg that there isn’t ncrete evince about the tth of their relatnship.

The Begngs of a New Gay World“In the late 19th century, there was an creasgly visible prence of genr-non-nformg men who were engaged sexual relatnships wh other men major Amerin ci, ” says Chad Heap, a profsor of Amerin Studi at Gee Washgton Universy and the thor of Slummg: Sexual and Racial Enunters Amerin Nightlife, 1885-1940. By the 1920s, gay men had tablished a prence Harlem and the bohemian mec of Greenwich Village (as well as the seedier environs of Tim Square), and the cy’s first lbian enclav had appeared Harlem and the Village. Each gay enclave, wrote Gee Chncey his book Gay New York: Genr, Urban Culture, and the Makg of the Gay Male World, 1890-1940, had a different class and ethnic character, cultural style and public reputatn.

RESISTANCE! HOW UNRGROUND GAY LIFE THRIVED THE 1950S

”At the same time, lbian and gay characters were beg featured a slew of popular “pulp” novels, songs and on Broadway stag (cludg the ntroversial 1926 play The Captive) and Hollywood—at least prr to 1934, when the motn picture dtry began enforcg censorship guil, known as the Hays Co. ” By the post-World War II era, a larger cultural shift toward earlier marriage and suburban livg, the advent of TV and the anti-homosexualy csas champned by Joseph McCarthy would help ph the flowerg of gay culture reprented by the Pansy Craze firmly to the natn’s rear-view mirror.

It was taken 1953, a time when purposefully vague statut on morals, lewd nduct, or disorrly nduct many stat allowed the police to target and arrt gay and lbian people for such transgrsns as wearg ems of clothg of the oppose sex, proposng someone of the same sex, or even holdg hands wh a member of the same sex.

LIVG BLACK & GAY THE ’50SVISNARYIN THE CENTENARY YEAR OF HIS BIRTH, THOR JAM BALDW HAS ONLY GAED STATURE FOR THE WISDOM WH WHICH HE WROTE ABOUT BEG BLACK AND GAY WHEN WASN’T EASY BEG EHER.ALA MABANCKOUUPDATED APR. 14, 2017 1:21PM EDT / PUBLISHED DEC. 03, 2014 5:45AM EST ULF ANRSEN/GETTY IMAGYOU BSHED OFF LABELS LIKE “NEGRO,” “GHETTO BOY,” “BASTARD,” AND, MORE THAN ANYTHG, “FAGGOT.”IF JAM CAMPBELL, HIS BGRAPHY OF YOU, FIGHTS AGAST THE LATTER LABEL PARTICULAR—AN EASY SULT FOR MOST OF YOUR ADVERSARI— IS BEE HE IS AWARE THAT YOUR HOMOSEXUALY FOR YOU IS THE EXPRSN OF YOUR EEDOM, A WAY OF BEG YOURSELF, AND NOT THE EXPRSN OF SOME VIATN OR, HIS TERMS, OF SOME “GEIC AMBIVALENCE,” FNS THAT DISTORT THE UNRSTANDG OF ANY DIVIDUAL.IN YOUR DAY, THE NTRADICTN WAS OBV: ON THE ONE HAND, YOUR UNTRY HELD UP DIVIDUAL EEDOM TO THE LEVEL OF A MOCRATIC IAL, BUT, ON THE OTHER, SANCTNED RACIAL SEGREGATN. CONSEQUENTLY, AS DWIGHT A. MCBRI ATTTS, THE IOLOGIL NONTATN BETWEEN PALIST AND MUNIST FACTNS WOULD ALTER THE DISURSE ON SEX, RACE, AND THE AIN-AMERIN MUNY. YOU WOULD HAVE A VOICE THIS DISURSE … IN FACT, AFTER WELG YOUR ARTICLE “EVERYBODY’S PROTT NOVEL” TO S FIRST EDN, THE JOURNAL ZERO PUBLISHED ANOTHER OF YOUR ARTICL THE FOLLOWG ISSUE, ENTLED “PRERVATN OF INNOCENCE.” IT IS A BRIEF TEXT WH PHILOSOPHIL LEANGS THAT REVOLV AROUND THE NOTNS OF NORMALY AND ABNORMALY HUMAN NATURE. THE SAGA OF THE HOMOSEXUAL, ACRDG TO YOUR ANALYSIS, IS THAT HE MT ALWAYS NONT THE MOST PROFOUND GRIEF: THAT HE IS ABNORMAL BEE HE HAS OPTED TO TURN HIMSELF AWAY OM HIS ORIGAL FUNCTN, THAT OF A PROCREATOR, FOR A RELATNSHIP BOUND TO STERILY. SCE HOMOSEXUALY IS AS OLD AS THE HUMAN RACE, THE MOST SUABLE ATTU WOULD BE TO NSIR AS A MATERIAL PONENT OF NORMALY. SEX, WH S MYTHS, NONTS WH THE PLEXY OF OUR BEHAVRS AND OUR BELIEFS. YOU REMD THAT MEN AND WOMEN HAVE IMPERFECTN MON, AND ARE DIVISIBLE. BEE OF THIS, TAMPERG WH THE NATURE OF ONE HAS AN IMPACT ON THE NATURE OF THE OTHER. THEIR ABSOLUTE SEPARATN—MAN HAVG TO FORT HIMSELF HIS MASCULY, AND WOMAN ASSURG HER OWN FUNCTN AS A WOMAN—WOULD STROY EACH OF THEIR SOULS. ALTHOUGH IS OFTEN REPEATED THAT WOMEN ARE MORE GENTLE, LEGENDS SUATE THAT THEY MAY BE “MYTHILLY AND EVEN HISTORILLY, TREACHERO.” NOVELS, POETRY, THEATER, AND FABL HAVE SOMETIM ENTERTAED THIS PARADOX, WHICH ONLY PERSONAL EXPERIENCE IS PABLE OF FIRST CLARIFYG, THEN BLOCKG YOU YOUR TRACKS. “THIS IS A PARADOX WHICH EXPERIENCE ALONE IS ABLE TO ILLUMATE AND THIS EXPERIENCE IS NOT MUNIBLE ANY LANGUAGE THAT WE KNOW. THE REGNN OF THIS PLEXY IS THE SIGNAL OF MATURY; MARKS THE ATH OF THE CHILD AND THE BIRTH OF THE MAN.” “PRERVATN OF INNOCENCE” REMAS THE VERY FIRST TEXT WHICH YOU SPEAK EXPLICLY ABOUT HOMOSEXUALY, BEFORE NTUG TO EXPLORE THIS THEME YOUR FOLLOWG WORKS, MOST NOTABLY YOUR SEND NOVEL, GVANNI’S ROOM.IN JANUARY 1985, TWO YEARS BEFORE YOUR ATH, YOU PUBLISH ANOTHER ARTICLE, “FREAKS AND THE AMERIN IAL OF MANHOOD,” THE FAMO EROTIC AMERIN MAGAZE, PLAYBOY, FOUND 1953 BY HUGH HEFNER. THIS MONTHLY PERDIL WEL WRERS OM TIME TO TIME; THE WORLD’S LEADG WRERS HAVE PUBLISHED HERE, CLUDG VLADIMIR NABOKOV, IAN FLEMG, AND MARGARET ATWOOD.IN “FREAKS AND THE AMERIN IAL OF MANHOOD,” YOU EXAME THE NOTN OF MASCULY BY DRAWG ON A MULTU OF TOBGRAPHIL ELEMENTS. YOU LOOK AT YOUR OWN EXPERIENCE AS A HOMOSEXUAL AND TRY TO UNRSTAND THE MALIC GAZE OF THE OTHER, PARTICULAR THE AMERIN HETEROSEXUAL MALE.STARTG WH THE IA OF ANDROGYNY, YOU ARGUE THAT THERE IS A WOMAN EVERY MAN, AND VICE VERSA. AS A NSEQUENCE, “… LOVE BETWEEN A MAN AND A WOMAN, OR LOVE BETWEEN ANY TWO HUMAN BEGS, WOULD NOT BE POSSIBLE DID WE NOT HAVE AVAILABLE TO THE SPIRUAL ROURC OF BOTH SEX.” HOWEVER THE AMERIN SEXUAL IAL IS TIMATELY RELATED TO A CERTA IA OF MASCULY. IT IS THIS IAL THAT CREAT, AMONG OTHER THGS, “… WBOYS AND INDIANS, GOOD GUYS AND BAD GUYS, PUNKS AND STUDS, TOUGH GUYS AND SOFTI, BUTCH AND FAGGOT, BLACK AND WHE.” THE YOUNG, AMERIN MAN WILL THEREFORE VELOP WH THIS IMAGARY PLEX…YOUR FIRST HOMOSEXUAL EXPERIENC—EVEN IF THEY ARE THEN LIMED TO A FEW ENUNTERS—TAKE PLACE THE BARS OF GREENWICH VILLAGE. NEW YORK CY AT THE TIME, ACRDG TO MCBRI, ATTRACTS MEN AND WOMEN WHO ARE EXPLORG AND EXPRSG THEIR SEXUAL DIFFERENCE. IN GREENWICH VILLAGE, YOU AND SEVERAL OTHER “FAGGOTS” ENDURE THE JIB OF THE “MORAL POLICE”: “THERE WERE ONLY ABOUT THREE OF , IF I REMEMBER RRECTLY, WHEN I FIRST H THOSE STREETS, AND I WAS THE YOUNGT, THE MOST VISIBLE, AND THE MOST VULNERABLE.”AT THE AGE OF SIXTEEN THE BAD GUYS CHASE YOU, OFTEN UNR THE AMED AND PLIC WATCH OF POLICEMEN. THIS MAK YOU SAY THAT WAS NOT THE POLICE YOU FEARED, BUT RATHER THE GUYS WHO CID THAT YOU TARNISHED THE RPECTABILY OF THE NEIGHBORHOOD.SEEK SHELTER? WHERE? IN A MOVIE THEATER? THERE YOU HAD TO FEAR THE WANRG HAND OF AN OLR MAN, OR ANOTHER MAN WHO, STANDG ONT OF A DISPLAY OF PORNOGRAPHIC MAGAZ, LOOKS AT YOU WH EY THAT SAY EVERYTHG: “THERE WERE ALL KDS OF MEN, MOSTLY YOUNG AND, THOSE DAYS, ALMOST EXCLIVELY WHE.” RICHARD WRIGHT WOULD NEVER SEE EYE TO EYE WH YOU ABOUT YOUR LIFTYLE. HOMOSEXUALY FOR HIM WAS LKED TO PERVERSN. HE DO NOT SHY AWAY OM GENERALIZATNS, SCE HE REMARKS TO ONE OF HIS IENDS, WHEN TALKG ABOUT YOU, “IT’S ALWAYS THE SAME THG WH THE HOMOS” OR, AGA, “SURE HE N WRE, BUT HE’S A FAGGOT.”***THE PUBLITN OF GVANNI’S ROOM 1953 IS QUE AN EVENT. THERE ARE THREE REASONS FOR THIS: THE NOVEL DO NOT TAKE PLACE AMERI, THERE ARE NO BLACK CHARACTERS, AND THE HOMOSEXUALY OF THE HERO IS CLEARLY STATED.FRANCE IS THE BACKDROP FOR GVANNI’S ROOM, NOT WHOUT REASON. THIS SPATIAL DISPLACEMENT REVEALS YOUR THIRST FOR EEDOM, YOUR SIRE FOR OPENNS AND TO BREAK WH THE PROTT NOVEL. YOUR MA CHARACTER BREAKS EE OM THE ARCHETYPE OF THE AIN-AMERIN NOVEL: DAVID IS NOT BLACK. HE REMBL NOTHG OF JOHN GRIM, YOUR “DOUBLE” GO TELL IT ON THE MOUNTA, NSIRED AT THE TIME TO BE ONE OF THE FIRST BOOKS ABOUT THE BLACK NDN.DAVID EQUENTS THE HOMOSEXUAL I PARIS WHILE HIS FIANCéE, WHE AND AMERIN, IS TRAVELG SPA. THE NOVEL TAK A UNIQUE LOOK AT THE QUT FOR SEXUAL INTY, THIS WAY BUILDG UPON REFLECTNS MA “THE PRERVATN OF INNOCENCE” AND THAT YOU PURSUE, NEAR THE TWILIGHT OF YOUR LIFE, “FREAKS AND THE AMERIN IAL OF MANHOOD.”ON THE BACK VER OF THE FIRST PAPERBACK EDN WE GET A GLIMPSE OF THE MEDIA BUZZ.THE NEW YORK HERALD TRIBUNE CELEBRAT “THE STORY OF A YOUNG AMERIN MAN GRAPPLG SIMULTANEOLY WH THE LOVE OF A MAN AND A WOMAN,” BEFORE ADDG THAT “MR. BALDW NAVIGAT THE ISSU WH AN EXCEPTNAL GREE OF NDOR, AND YET, WH SUCH DIGNY AND TENSY THAT HE AVOIDS THE TRAP OF SENSATNALISM.” THE EVENG STANDARD, FOR THEIR PART, IS EVEN MORE WON OVER: “PROBABLY THE BT AND CERTALY THE MOST ANK NOVEL ABOUT HOMOSEXUALY YEARS …”THE STORY IS HEART WRENCHG, AS MUCH FOR THE CHARACTERS’ ANGUISH AS FOR THE BETY OF THE WRG, RENRED LIVELY AND SENSUAL THROUGH S POETIC TENSY AND THE STRENGTH OF S IMAGERY. RATHER THAN MULLG OVER THE LLECTIVE UNRT OVER THE BLACK NDN, YOU EXPLORE DIVIDUAL SPERATN, THE HOPELS TRAGEDY OF A MAN NONTED WH SOLU AND ACCEPTG A FATE THAT DRIV HIM TO SELF-STCTN. IN THIS LI THE MEANG BEHD THE ENTIRE BODY OF YOUR WORK; UNRSTANDG THE LLECTIVE THROUGH THE DIVIDUAL.GVANNI’S ROOM NEVERTHELS UNLEASHED SOME VERY NEGATIVE REACTNS THE BLACK AMERIN MUNY. THE BLACK PANTHER ACTIVIST ELDRIDGE CLEAVER DO NOT MCE HIS WORDS AND REJECTS PASSG YOUR ENTIRE BODY OF WORK: “THERE IS THE WORK OF JAM BALDW THE MOST AGONIZG, PLETE HATRED FOR BLACKS, PARTICULAR FOR HIMSELF, AND THE MOST SHAMEFUL, ARNT AND SERVILE ATTRACTN TO WH THAN N BE FOUND THE WORK OF ANY OTHER BLACK AMERIN WRER OF OUR DAY.”IS THIS TO SAY THAT THE NOVEL IS AF TO THE CRI OF THE OPPRSED, IMPERV TO THE POWER OF PROTT? IN A FEW L—NO DOUBT QUICKLY FOTTEN BY YOUR OPPONENTS— YOU GIVE A READG OF HISTORY DISTANCED OM THE CLASH OF CIVILIZATNS, WH ALL OF THE PA, BTERNS, HUIATN AND RAPE ENTAILS. AT BASE IS A CRY FOR RENCILIATN, FOR FIVENS AND FOR REMPTN THAT WE HEAR THE CHARACTER DAVID’S NFSN ON THE FIRST PAGE: “MY FACE IS LIKE A FACE YOU HAVE SEEN MANY TIM. MY ANCTORS NQUERED A NTENT, PHG ACROSS ATH-LAN PLAS, UNTIL THEY ME TO AN OCEAN WHICH FACED AWAY OM EUROPE TO A DARKER PAST.”COPYRIGHT © 2014 BY ALA MABANCKOU OM LETTER TO JIMMY (TRANSLATED BY SARA MELI ANSARI). REPRTED BY PERMISSN OF SOFT SKULL PRS, AN IMPRT OF COUNTERPOT.ALA MABANCKOU WAS BORN CONGO-BRAZZAVILLE 1966. HE IS THE THOR OF BROKEN GLASS, MEMOIRS OF A PORCUPE, AND AIN PSYCHO, AMONG OTHERS. HE CURRENTLY DIVIS HIS TIME BETWEEN PARIS AND CALIFORNIA, WHERE HE TEACH FRENCH LERATURE AT UCLA. ALA MABANCKOU

The highpot of the Boston gay social season was the annual Bex Arts Ball; was the one night when the police let anythg happen on the dance floor and people me om as far away as Chigo to be part of the fun.

A BRIEF HISTORY OF LBIAN, GAY, BISEXUAL, AND TRANSGENR SOCIAL MOVEMENTS

1907 – Hirschfeld, a Jewish German physician and sexologist, ttified at a trial Germany about a gay relatnship and stated, “homosexualy was part of the plan of nature and creatn jt like normal love. ” Some of the lbian, gay or bisexual people of this movement clud wrers and poets such as Langston Hugh, Countee Cullen and Zora Neale Hurston; Profsor Ala Locke; mic cric and photographer Carl Van Vechten, and entertaers Ma Raey, Bsie Smh, Ethel Waters and Gladys Bentley.

Gay and lbian people joed as well – men the ary livg same-sex dorms, and women as part of the Women Accepted for Volunteer Emergency Service (WAVES) and factori on the home ont found themselv same-sex surroundgs as well.

1945 – German Homosexual men, signated by a pk triangle on their clothg, were the last group to be released om the Nazi ncentratn mps after liberatn by the Allied forc bee Paragraph 175 of the German Crimal Co stated that homosexual relatns between mal to be illegal. 1948 – Aled Ksey, an Amerin blogist and sexologist at Indiana Universy issu the first report, Sexual Behavr of the Human Male, was published and discsed male homosexualy (Also known as the Ksey report). Congrs issu the report entled “Employment of Homosexuals and Other Sex Perverts Government” is distributed to members of Congrs after the feral ernment had vertly vtigated employe’ sexual orientatn.