Invasive Andropogon gayan (Gamba grass) alters lter posn and nrogen flux an Atralian tropil savanna | Scientific Reports

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• SCIENTIFIC NAMEANDROPOGON GAYAN KUNTHFAYGRAMEAE (SOUTH ATRALIA)POACEAE (QUEENSLAND, NEW SOUTH WAL, THE ACT, VICTORIA, TASMANIA, WTERN ATRALIA AND THE NORTHERN TERRORY) COMMON NAMBLUTERN, GAMBA GRASS, RHOSIAN ANDROPOGON, RHOSIAN BLUEGRASS, TAMBI GRASSORIGNATIVE TO MOST OF SUB-SAHARAN AI (I.E. SUDAN, TANZANIA, UGANDA, CAMEROON, CENTRAL AIN REPUBLIC, ZAIRE, BEN, BURKA FASO, IVORY COAST, GAMBIA, GHANA, GUEA, GUEA-BISS, LIBERIA, MALI, MRANIA, NIGERIA, SENEGAL, TOGO, MALAWI, MOZAMBIQUE, ZIMBABWE, BOTSWANA, NAMIBIA, SWAZILAND AND PARTS OF SOUTH AI).CULTIVATNGAMBA GRASS (ANDROPOGON GAYAN) IS MONLY CULTIVATED NORTHERN ATRALIA AS A HIGH YIELDG PASTURE GRASS. THE CULTIVAR 'KENT' IS THE ONLY ONE THAT IS WILY SOLD AND GROWN FOR THIS PURPOSE.NATURALISED DISTRIBUTNGAMBA GRASS (ANDROPOGON GAYAN) IS BEG WILY NATURALISED NORTHERN ATRALIA. IT IS CURRENTLY FOUND THE ASTAL DISTRICTS OF NORTHERN AND NORTH-WTERN WTERN ATRALIA, THE NORTHERN PARTS OF THE NORTHERN TERRORY, AND NORTHERN QUEENSLAND. IN WTERN ATRALIA IS MALY FOUND THE KIMBERLEY REGN, THOUGH THERE ARE ALSO RERDS OM THE PILBARA REGN. IT IS MOST WISPREAD THE NORTHERN TERRORY, WHERE LARGE FTATNS ARE PRENT THE DARW-KAKADU REGN AND IS ALSO SPREADG RAPIDLY THE ARNHEM REGN. THE MAJORY OF FTATNS QUEENSLAND ARE OM THE FAR NORTH OF THE STATE (I.E. THE COOK PASTORAL DISTRICT), HOWEVER SPECIMENS HAVE BEEN RECENTLY LLECTED NEAR TOWNSVILLE (I.E. THE NORTH KENNEDY PASTORAL DISTRICT).IT HAS ALSO BEE NATURALISED PARTS OF SOUTH AMERI (I.E. BRAZIL AND VENEZUELA).HABATTHIS GRASS PREFERS LOWLAND AREAS REGNS WH TROPIL AND WARMER SUB-TROPIL CLIMAT. IT FORMS ROBT STANDS DISTURBED S, OVERGRAZED PASTUR, NATIVE GRASSLANDS, SAVANNAHS AND OTHER OPEN WOODLAND HABATS NORTHERN ATRALIA. GAMBA GRASS (ANDROPOGON GAYAN) N ALSO VA A VARIETY OF OTHER NATURAL HABATS OM WETLAND MARGS THROUGH TO UPLAND SAVANNA AND IS ALSO PARTICULARLY ABUNDANT ALONG THE BANKS OF WATERURS AND ALONG ROADSIS.HABA VERY LARGE, LONG-LIVED (I.E. PERENNIAL) GRASS UALLY GROWG 1.5-2.5 M TALL BUT OCSNALLY REACHG UP TO 4 M HEIGHT. IT FORMS LARGE, NSE, TSOCKS UP TO 1 M ACROSS.DISTGUISHG FEATUR A LARGE, LONG-LIVED, GRASS REACHG UP TO 4 M HEIGHT AND FORMG NSE TSOCKS UP TO 1 M ACROSS. S STEMS ARE UALLY QUE ROBT AND ARE OFTEN QUE HAIRY. S LARGE AND ELONGATED LEAV (UP TO 1 M LONG AND 1.5-5 CM WI) HAVE A PROMENT CENTRAL VE. S SEED-HEADS ARE LARGE BRANCHED, LEAFY, PANICL THAT NSIST OF NUMERO PAIRS OF ELONGATED FLOWER CLTERS (4-9 CM LONG). S 'SEEDS' (7-9 MM LONG) ARE QUE HAIRY AND HAVE A LARGE, BENT AND TWISTED, AWN (1-4 CM LONG).STEMS AND LEAVPLANTS N HAVE FEW OR MANY UPRIGHT FLOWERG STEMS (I.E. ERECT CULMS), WHICH N VARY OM BEG QUE ROBT TO RELATIVELY FE AND SLENR. THE UPRIGHT STEMS ARE QUE HAIRY (I.E. PUBCENT) AND ARISE OM SHORT CREEPG UNRGROUND STEMS (I.E. RHIZOM). THE CREEPG UNRGROUND STEMS (I.E. RHIZOM) HAVE VERY SHORT TERNOS AND BRANCH READILY.THE LEAV NSIST OF A LEAF SHEATH, WHICH PARTIALLY ENCLOS THE STEM, AND A VERY LARGE LEAF BLA (UP TO 1 M LONG AND 1.5-5 CM WI). THE LEAF SHEATH IS HAIRY (I.E. PUBCENT), PECIALLY WHEN YOUNG, WHILE THE ELONGATED (I.E. LEAR) LEAF BLAS MAY BE HAIRLS (I.E. GLABRO) OR HAIRY (I.E. PUBCENT) ON BOTH SURFAC. THE LEAF BLAS HAVE A PROMENT CENTRAL VE (I.E. MIDRIB), ENTIRE MARGS, AND E TO A POTED TIP (I.E. ACUTE APEX). WHERE THE LEAF SHEATH MEETS THE LEAF BLA THERE IS A SMALL MEMBRANO STCTURE (I.E. LIGULE).FLOWERS AND FTHE SEED-HEAD IS A LARGE LEAFY POUND CLTER (I.E. SYNFLORCENCE) WH UP TO SIX GROUPS OF BRANCH, WH 2-18 BRANCH EACH GROUP. THE BRANCH (5-8 CM LONG) ARE VERY SLENR (I.E. FILIFORM) AND END  A PAIR OF ELONGATED FLOWER CLTERS (I.E. RACEM). LEAFY BRACTS (I.E. SPATHEOL) 6-8 CM LONG ARE PRENT AT THE BASE OF THE BRANCH. THE ELONGATED FLOWER CLTERS (4-9 CM LONG) HAVE ABOUT 10-14 JOTS, EACH BEARG A PAIR OF VERY HAIRY FLOWER SPIKELETS. ONE OF THE FLOWER SPIKELETS EACH PAIR IS STALKLS (I.E. SSILE), WHILE THE OTHER IS BORNE ON A STALK (I.E. PEDICEL) ABOUT 4-5 MM LONG. THE STALKLS OR SSILE SPIKELET (7-9 MM LONG) HAS BOTH MALE AND FEMALE PARTS (I.E. IS BISEXUAL) AND HAS A LARGE, BENT AND TWISTED, AWN (1-4 CM LONG). THE STALKED OR PEDICELLATE SPIKELET (5-8 MM LONG) ONLY HAS MALE PARTS DO NOT PRODUCE SEEDS (I.E. IS UNISEXUAL AND STERILE). IT UALLY HAS A MUCH SMALLER AWN (1-10 MM LONG) THAT IS RELATIVELY STRAIGHT. FLOWERG AND UG OCCURS MALY DURG TUMN AND WTER (I.E. OM APRIL TO AUGT).THE FLOWER SPIKELETS ARE SHED OM THE PLANT TACT, ALONG WH THEIR AWNS, AND ARE UALLY REFERRED TO AS 'SEEDS'. THEY ACTUALLY NSIST OF A 'SEED' (I.E. RYOPSIS OR GRA), WHICH IS ENCLOSED A PAIR OF NER FLORAL BRACTS (I.E. A PALEA AND LEMMA) AND OUTER BRACTS (I.E. GLUM). THE 'SEEDS' (I.E. RYOPS OR GRAS) THEMSELV ARE LIGHT BROWN TO BROWNISH-BLACK LOUR AND ONLY ABOUT 2-3 MM LONG BY 1 MM WI.REPRODUCTN AND DISPERSALGAMBA GRASS (ANDROPOGON GAYAN) REPRODUC BY SEED. BEE WAS TRODUCED AS A MERCIAL PASTURE PLANT, THIS SPECI IS MOST MONLY SPREAD TO NEW AREAS AS A NSEQUENCE OF BEG SOLD AND LIBERATELY PLANTED FOR THIS PURPOSE. ITS TRANSPORT AS A FODR IS ANOTHER IMPORTANT MEANS OF DISPERSAL TO NEW AREAS.ROADSI SLASHG, MACHERY, VEHICL AND ANIMALS MAY ALSO BE VECTORS THAT DISPERSE SEEDS SHORTER DISTANC ONCE HAS BEE TABLISHED AN AREA. SCE THE SEEDS OF THIS SPECI ARE LIGHT AND FLUFFY THEY N ALSO BE SPREAD SHORT DISTANC BY WD AND N FLOAT ON WATER.ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT GAMBA GRASS (ANDROPOGON GAYAN) IS A SER THREAT TO SAVANNAS OF NORTHERN ATRALIA AND IS REGARD AS AN ENVIRONMENTAL WEED THE NORTHERN PARTS OF WTERN ATRALIA, THE NORTHERN TERRORY AND QUEENSLAND. IT FORMS NSE STANDS WHICH OUT-PETE NATIVE PLANTS AND IS OF MOST NCERN  SAVANNA WOODLANDS WHERE RAFALL IS OVER 600 MM PER ANNUM. HOWEVER, IS ALSO REGARD BY MANY THE GRAZG DTRY TO BE A HIGHLY PRODUCTIVE PASTURE GRASS, AND IS STILL WILY GROWN FOR THIS PURPOSE NORTHERN ATRALIA. IT HAS A LOW PALATABILY WHEN MATURE AND REQUIR NSTANT SLASHG OR GRAZG TO BE OF SIGNIFINT E PASTUR.IN THE NORTHERN TERRORY, GAMBA GRASS (ANDROPOGON GAYAN) CURRENTLY OCCURS THE DARW, PALMERSTON AND LCHFIELD SHIR, THE COOMALIE COMMUNY GOVERNMENT, AND THE MARY RIVER, DOUGLAS RIVER AND LOWER DALY RIVER REGNS. IT IS SPREADG RAPIDLY ALONG ROADSIS AND OTHER DISTURBANCE RRIDORS THROUGHOUT THE NORTHERN PARTS OF THE TERRORY, AND OM THE IAL FTATNS THEN VAS RELATIVELY UNDISTURBED VEGETATN, CLUDG SIGNIFINT NSERVATN AREAS (E.G. WILDMAN RIVER NATNAL PARK AND KAKADU NATNAL PARK). IN QUEENSLAND, THE FIRST NATURALISED SPECIMEN OF GAMBA GRASS (ANDROPOGON GAYAN) WAS LLECTED 1992, OM BAMAGA ON CAPE YORK PENSULA. SCE THIS LLECTN WAS MA, HAS BEEN FOUND  S TO THE NORTH AND SOUTH OF WEIPA, ALONG THE ROAD TO HOPEVALE THE COOKTOWN AREA, THE LAKELAND DOWNS AREA, AT SUDLEY TO THE EAST OF WEIPA, AT KALGA STATN ABOUT 80 KM NORTH OF LRA, ON THE MCHELL RIVER NEAR KOWANYAMA, AT KENLL RIVER WT OF COEN, AT BATAVIA DOWNS, ON ABORIGAL LAND THE NORTHERN PENSULA AREA (NPA) AND NEAR MAREEBA. IT HAS ALSO BEEN REPORTED TO BE SPREADG TO PARKS AND RERV NORTHERN QUEENSLAND (E.G. HEATHLAND NATNAL PARK AND KEATGS LAGOON CONSERVATN PARK). IN WTERN ATRALIA GAMBA GRASS (ANDROPOGON GAYAN) IS CURRENTLY MALY FOUND THE AREA AROUND KUNUNURRA THE KIMBERLEY REGN.COMPARED WH NATIVE GRASS, GAMBA GRASS (ANDROPOGON GAYAN) FORMS MUCH TALLER AND NSER STANDS OF VEGETATN THAT DRY OUT LATER THE SEASON, AND THEREFORE VAD AREAS NTA MUCH HIGHER FUEL LOADS THAN NATIVE GRASSLANDS. NATIVE GRASS FUEL LOADS ARE TYPILLY 3-5 TONN PER HECTARE WHILE GAMBA GRASS (ANDROPOGON GAYAN) FUEL LOADS ARE TYPILLY 11 TO 15 TONN PER HECTARE, AND MAY SOMETIM BE AS HIGH AS 30 TONN PER HECTARE. THE HIGHER FUEL LOADS SUPPORT MORE EQUENT FIR THAT ARE MUCH MORE TENSE THAN THOSE FUELLED BY NATIVE GRASS, AND THE FLAME HEIGHTS OF FIR STANDS OF GAMBA GRASS (ANDROPOGON GAYAN) FIR ARE TYPILLY HIGHER THAN THE TREE NOPY. THE HOTTER FIR HAVE THE POTENTIAL TO SEVERALY DAMAGE NATIVE PLANTS AND MAY ALSO DRAMATILLY ALTER THE STCTURE OF THE NATIVE VEGETATN OVER TIME. IN PARTICULAR, THE NUMBER OF TRE ARE RCED RULTG A CHANGE OM NATIVE WOODLAND TO EXOTIC GRASSLAND.THIS IS ILLTRATED BY THE FACT THAT GAMBA GRASS (ANDROPOGON GAYAN) VASN HAS BEEN SHOWN TO PRODUCE A PHENOMENON KNOWN AS A "GRASS-FIRE CYCLE" NORTHERN ATRALIA. THIS OCCURS WHEN THE AMOUNT OF GAMBA GRASS (ANDROPOGON GAYAN) CREAS, G AN CREASE THE AMOUNT OF FUEL, WHICH CREAS FIRE EQUENCY AND FIRE TENSY. THIS THEN A CLE NATIVE TREE AND SHB VER, WHICH AIDS FURTHER GAMBA GRASS (ANDROPOGON GAYAN) VASN AND  THIS WAY A SELF-PERPETUATG CYCLE OF VASN VELOPS. FOR EXAMPLE, AT ONE SE THE NORTHERN TERRORY,  WAS FOUND THAT GAMBA GRASS (ANDROPOGON GAYAN) VASN HAD ED A 53% RCTN THE NATIVE TREE NOPY THE LAST 12 YEARS. IF THIS SORT OF CHANGE OCCURS ON A LANDSPE SLE, ULD TOTALLY TRANSFORM NORTHERN ATRALIA'S SAVANNAS OM WILDLIFE-RICH WOODLANDS TO BLOGILLY IMPOVERISHED MONOCULTUR OF GAMBA GRASS (ANDROPOGON GAYAN) RRYG REGULAR HOT FIR. BEE OF THIS, VASN OF GAMBA GRASS (ANDROPOGON GAYAN) NORTHERN ATRALIA HAS BEEN NOMATED FOR LISTG AS A "KEY THREATENENG PROCS" UNR THE ENVIRONMENT PROTECTN AND BDIVERSY CONSERVATN ACT.GAMBA GRASS (ANDROPOGON GAYAN) VASN HAS ALSO BEEN SHOWN TO HAVE A VARIETY OF OTHER IMPACTS ON NATIVE FLORA AND FNA, AND EVEN ESYSTEM FUNCTN. FOR EXAMPLE, VAD AREAS GENERALLY HAVE ABOUT HALF THE NUMBER OF PLANT SPECI AS NATIVE GRASSLAND AREAS. ITS HIGHER BMASS ALSO ALTERS THE STCTURE OF VAD AREAS AND N CHANGE ESYSTEM PROCS SUCH AS NUTRIENT CYCLG AND WATER CYCLG. DAILY WATER E THE WET SEASON IS THREE TIM HIGHER GAMBA GRASS (ANDROPOGON GAYAN) VAD S THAN IS NEARBY NATIVE GRASSLANDS, AND THIS RC THE DRAAGE OF WATER THROUGH THE SOIL PROFILE. THOUGH GAMBA GRASS (ANDROPOGON GAYAN) VAS AND TABLISH MORE EASILY WH DISTURBANCE, N GROW QUE READILY BURNT AND UNBURNT SAVANNA HABATS REGARDLS OF WHETHER THE SOIL SURFACE IS BROKEN. IT IS ALSO NOT RTRICTED TO SAVANNAS, AS HAS BEEN REPORTED TO VA UPLAND MELAL FORTS, RIPARIAN AREAS, AND WETLAND AND FLOODPLA MARGS NORTHERN ATRALIA.AS WELL AS AFFECTG ESYSTEMS, AND THE NATIVE FLORA AND FNA GENERAL, GAMBA GRASS (ANDROPOGON GAYAN) IS ALSO A SIGNIFINT THREAT TO NUMERO RARE AND ENDANGERED NATIVE PLANTS AND ANIMALS. ITS IMPACT ON THE FOLLOWG SPECI THE NORTHERN TERRORY HAS BEEN DOCUMENTED: THE ENDANGERED ATLAS MOTH (ATTAC WARDI). THIS SPECI IS FOUND ONLY  THE DARW REGN, WHERE S LARVAE SURVIVE REMNANT GRASSLANDS. INVASN OF GAMBA GRASS (ANDROPOGON GAYAN) IS A THREAT BEE  DISPLAC THE NATIVE FOOD PLANTS OF THIS SPECI AND FUELS HOTTER FIR WHICH STROY S HABAT. THE VULNERABLE CYS ARMSTRONGII. THIS SPECI IS ENMIC TO THE NORTH-WTERN RNER OF THE NORTHERN TERRORY. WHILE IS LOLLY MON, APPROPRIATE FIRE REGIM ED BY THE VASN OF GAMBA GRASS (ANDROPOGON GAYAN) AND OTHER EXOTIC GRASS IS A MAJOR THREAT. MORTALY EXCS OF 50% OF ADULT STEMS PER FIRE EVENT HAVE BEEN RERD WHEN SUBJECT TO FUEL LOADS OF 20 TONN PER HECTARE. THE THREATENED DARW PALM (PTYCHOSPERMA BLEERI). THE DARW PALM IS ONLY FOUND EIGHT SMALL RART PATCH EAST OF DARW, WH THE ALAI AND HOWARD RIVER SYSTEM. IT IS HIGHLY SCEPTIBLE TO THE IMPACTS OF THE SPREAD OF GAMBA GRASS (ANDROPOGON GAYAN) AND ASSOCIATED CHANG TO FIRE REGIM. THE VULNERABLE YELLOW-SNOUTED GROUND GECKO (DIPLODACTYL OCCULT). THIS SPECI APPEARS TO BE RTRICTED TO LOWLAND OPEN FORTS THE MARY, WILDMAN AND WT ALLIGATOR TCHMENTS THE NORTHERN TERRORY. ITS HABAT IS PRONE TO WILDFIRE AND IS THREATENED BY VASN OF EXOTIC PASTURE GRASS, PARTICULARLY GAMBA GRASS (ANDROPOGON GAYAN) AND MISSN GRASS (PENNISETUM POLYSTACHYON), WHICH ARE CREASG FIRE TENSI. THE VULNERABLE EASTERN PARTRIDGE PIGEON (GEOPHAPS SMHII SMHII). THE MOST IMPORTANT THREATS TO THIS SPECI ARE THE TER-RELATED CHANG GRASS POSN AND FIRE REGIM ED BY EXOTIC GRASS, CLUDG GAMBA GRASS (ANDROPOGON GAYAN), WHICH WILL AFFECT THE DIVERSY, TIMG AND ABUNDANCE OF SEEDS AVAILABLE AS A FOOD SOURCE. THE ENDANGERED YELLOW CHAT (EPTHIANURA CROCEA TUNNEYI). A MAJOR FACTOR NTRIBUTG TO THE CLE OF THIS SPECI ARE THE CHANG TO S HABAT BROUGHT ABOUT BY THE WISPREAD FTATN OF GAMBA GRASS (ANDROPOGON GAYAN) AND OTHER WEED SPECI THE FLOODPLA HABATS THAT CURRENTLY OCCUPI. THE ENDANGERED HELICTER SP. GLENLUCKIE CREEK. THIS UNSCRIBED SPECI IS ONLY KNOWN OM THREE POPULATNS SAVANNA WOODLANDS NEAR DARW. IT MAY BE SCEPTIBLE TO VASN OM PERENNIAL WEEDY GRASS SUCH AS GAMBA GRASS (ANDROPOGON GAYAN), WHICH ARE LIKELY TO SMOTHER DIVIDUALS, ALTER FIRE TENSY AND/OR EQUENCY, AND AFFECT RECMENT.OTHER IMPACTS
• ANDROPOGON GAYAN
• INVASIVE ANDROPOGON GAYAN (GAMBA GRASS) IS AN ESYSTEM TRANSFORMER OF NROGEN RELATNS ATRALIAN SAVANNA
• GERMPLASM LLECTNS AND MORPHOLOGIL STUDI OF ANDROPOGON GAYAN–ANDROPOGON TECTOM PLEX SOUTHWTERN NIGERIA
• GAMBA GRASS (ANDROPOGON GAYAN)
• ANDROPOGON GAYAN KUNTH
• ANDROPOGON GAYAN*
• INVASIVE ANDROPOGON GAYAN (GAMBA GRASS) ALTERS LTER POSN AND NROGEN FLUX AN ATRALIAN TROPIL SAVANNA

SCIENTIFIC NAMEANDROPOGON GAYAN KUNTHFAYGRAMEAE (SOUTH ATRALIA)POACEAE (QUEENSLAND, NEW SOUTH WAL, THE ACT, VICTORIA, TASMANIA, WTERN ATRALIA AND THE NORTHERN TERRORY) COMMON NAMBLUTERN, GAMBA GRASS, RHOSIAN ANDROPOGON, RHOSIAN BLUEGRASS, TAMBI GRASSORIGNATIVE TO MOST OF SUB-SAHARAN AI (I.E. SUDAN, TANZANIA, UGANDA, CAMEROON, CENTRAL AIN REPUBLIC, ZAIRE, BEN, BURKA FASO, IVORY COAST, GAMBIA, GHANA, GUEA, GUEA-BISS, LIBERIA, MALI, MRANIA, NIGERIA, SENEGAL, TOGO, MALAWI, MOZAMBIQUE, ZIMBABWE, BOTSWANA, NAMIBIA, SWAZILAND AND PARTS OF SOUTH AI).CULTIVATNGAMBA GRASS (ANDROPOGON GAYAN) IS MONLY CULTIVATED NORTHERN ATRALIA AS A HIGH YIELDG PASTURE GRASS. THE CULTIVAR 'KENT' IS THE ONLY ONE THAT IS WILY SOLD AND GROWN FOR THIS PURPOSE.NATURALISED DISTRIBUTNGAMBA GRASS (ANDROPOGON GAYAN) IS BEG WILY NATURALISED NORTHERN ATRALIA. IT IS CURRENTLY FOUND THE ASTAL DISTRICTS OF NORTHERN AND NORTH-WTERN WTERN ATRALIA, THE NORTHERN PARTS OF THE NORTHERN TERRORY, AND NORTHERN QUEENSLAND. IN WTERN ATRALIA IS MALY FOUND THE KIMBERLEY REGN, THOUGH THERE ARE ALSO RERDS OM THE PILBARA REGN. IT IS MOST WISPREAD THE NORTHERN TERRORY, WHERE LARGE FTATNS ARE PRENT THE DARW-KAKADU REGN AND IS ALSO SPREADG RAPIDLY THE ARNHEM REGN. THE MAJORY OF FTATNS QUEENSLAND ARE OM THE FAR NORTH OF THE STATE (I.E. THE COOK PASTORAL DISTRICT), HOWEVER SPECIMENS HAVE BEEN RECENTLY LLECTED NEAR TOWNSVILLE (I.E. THE NORTH KENNEDY PASTORAL DISTRICT).IT HAS ALSO BEE NATURALISED PARTS OF SOUTH AMERI (I.E. BRAZIL AND VENEZUELA).HABATTHIS GRASS PREFERS LOWLAND AREAS REGNS WH TROPIL AND WARMER SUB-TROPIL CLIMAT. IT FORMS ROBT STANDS DISTURBED S, OVERGRAZED PASTUR, NATIVE GRASSLANDS, SAVANNAHS AND OTHER OPEN WOODLAND HABATS NORTHERN ATRALIA. GAMBA GRASS (ANDROPOGON GAYAN) N ALSO VA A VARIETY OF OTHER NATURAL HABATS OM WETLAND MARGS THROUGH TO UPLAND SAVANNA AND IS ALSO PARTICULARLY ABUNDANT ALONG THE BANKS OF WATERURS AND ALONG ROADSIS.HABA VERY LARGE, LONG-LIVED (I.E. PERENNIAL) GRASS UALLY GROWG 1.5-2.5 M TALL BUT OCSNALLY REACHG UP TO 4 M HEIGHT. IT FORMS LARGE, NSE, TSOCKS UP TO 1 M ACROSS.DISTGUISHG FEATUR A LARGE, LONG-LIVED, GRASS REACHG UP TO 4 M HEIGHT AND FORMG NSE TSOCKS UP TO 1 M ACROSS. S STEMS ARE UALLY QUE ROBT AND ARE OFTEN QUE HAIRY. S LARGE AND ELONGATED LEAV (UP TO 1 M LONG AND 1.5-5 CM WI) HAVE A PROMENT CENTRAL VE. S SEED-HEADS ARE LARGE BRANCHED, LEAFY, PANICL THAT NSIST OF NUMERO PAIRS OF ELONGATED FLOWER CLTERS (4-9 CM LONG). S 'SEEDS' (7-9 MM LONG) ARE QUE HAIRY AND HAVE A LARGE, BENT AND TWISTED, AWN (1-4 CM LONG).STEMS AND LEAVPLANTS N HAVE FEW OR MANY UPRIGHT FLOWERG STEMS (I.E. ERECT CULMS), WHICH N VARY OM BEG QUE ROBT TO RELATIVELY FE AND SLENR. THE UPRIGHT STEMS ARE QUE HAIRY (I.E. PUBCENT) AND ARISE OM SHORT CREEPG UNRGROUND STEMS (I.E. RHIZOM). THE CREEPG UNRGROUND STEMS (I.E. RHIZOM) HAVE VERY SHORT TERNOS AND BRANCH READILY.THE LEAV NSIST OF A LEAF SHEATH, WHICH PARTIALLY ENCLOS THE STEM, AND A VERY LARGE LEAF BLA (UP TO 1 M LONG AND 1.5-5 CM WI). THE LEAF SHEATH IS HAIRY (I.E. PUBCENT), PECIALLY WHEN YOUNG, WHILE THE ELONGATED (I.E. LEAR) LEAF BLAS MAY BE HAIRLS (I.E. GLABRO) OR HAIRY (I.E. PUBCENT) ON BOTH SURFAC. THE LEAF BLAS HAVE A PROMENT CENTRAL VE (I.E. MIDRIB), ENTIRE MARGS, AND E TO A POTED TIP (I.E. ACUTE APEX). WHERE THE LEAF SHEATH MEETS THE LEAF BLA THERE IS A SMALL MEMBRANO STCTURE (I.E. LIGULE).FLOWERS AND FTHE SEED-HEAD IS A LARGE LEAFY POUND CLTER (I.E. SYNFLORCENCE) WH UP TO SIX GROUPS OF BRANCH, WH 2-18 BRANCH EACH GROUP. THE BRANCH (5-8 CM LONG) ARE VERY SLENR (I.E. FILIFORM) AND END  A PAIR OF ELONGATED FLOWER CLTERS (I.E. RACEM). LEAFY BRACTS (I.E. SPATHEOL) 6-8 CM LONG ARE PRENT AT THE BASE OF THE BRANCH. THE ELONGATED FLOWER CLTERS (4-9 CM LONG) HAVE ABOUT 10-14 JOTS, EACH BEARG A PAIR OF VERY HAIRY FLOWER SPIKELETS. ONE OF THE FLOWER SPIKELETS EACH PAIR IS STALKLS (I.E. SSILE), WHILE THE OTHER IS BORNE ON A STALK (I.E. PEDICEL) ABOUT 4-5 MM LONG. THE STALKLS OR SSILE SPIKELET (7-9 MM LONG) HAS BOTH MALE AND FEMALE PARTS (I.E. IS BISEXUAL) AND HAS A LARGE, BENT AND TWISTED, AWN (1-4 CM LONG). THE STALKED OR PEDICELLATE SPIKELET (5-8 MM LONG) ONLY HAS MALE PARTS DO NOT PRODUCE SEEDS (I.E. IS UNISEXUAL AND STERILE). IT UALLY HAS A MUCH SMALLER AWN (1-10 MM LONG) THAT IS RELATIVELY STRAIGHT. FLOWERG AND UG OCCURS MALY DURG TUMN AND WTER (I.E. OM APRIL TO AUGT).THE FLOWER SPIKELETS ARE SHED OM THE PLANT TACT, ALONG WH THEIR AWNS, AND ARE UALLY REFERRED TO AS 'SEEDS'. THEY ACTUALLY NSIST OF A 'SEED' (I.E. RYOPSIS OR GRA), WHICH IS ENCLOSED A PAIR OF NER FLORAL BRACTS (I.E. A PALEA AND LEMMA) AND OUTER BRACTS (I.E. GLUM). THE 'SEEDS' (I.E. RYOPS OR GRAS) THEMSELV ARE LIGHT BROWN TO BROWNISH-BLACK LOUR AND ONLY ABOUT 2-3 MM LONG BY 1 MM WI.REPRODUCTN AND DISPERSALGAMBA GRASS (ANDROPOGON GAYAN) REPRODUC BY SEED. BEE WAS TRODUCED AS A MERCIAL PASTURE PLANT, THIS SPECI IS MOST MONLY SPREAD TO NEW AREAS AS A NSEQUENCE OF BEG SOLD AND LIBERATELY PLANTED FOR THIS PURPOSE. ITS TRANSPORT AS A FODR IS ANOTHER IMPORTANT MEANS OF DISPERSAL TO NEW AREAS.ROADSI SLASHG, MACHERY, VEHICL AND ANIMALS MAY ALSO BE VECTORS THAT DISPERSE SEEDS SHORTER DISTANC ONCE HAS BEE TABLISHED AN AREA. SCE THE SEEDS OF THIS SPECI ARE LIGHT AND FLUFFY THEY N ALSO BE SPREAD SHORT DISTANC BY WD AND N FLOAT ON WATER.ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT GAMBA GRASS (ANDROPOGON GAYAN) IS A SER THREAT TO SAVANNAS OF NORTHERN ATRALIA AND IS REGARD AS AN ENVIRONMENTAL WEED THE NORTHERN PARTS OF WTERN ATRALIA, THE NORTHERN TERRORY AND QUEENSLAND. IT FORMS NSE STANDS WHICH OUT-PETE NATIVE PLANTS AND IS OF MOST NCERN  SAVANNA WOODLANDS WHERE RAFALL IS OVER 600 MM PER ANNUM. HOWEVER, IS ALSO REGARD BY MANY THE GRAZG DTRY TO BE A HIGHLY PRODUCTIVE PASTURE GRASS, AND IS STILL WILY GROWN FOR THIS PURPOSE NORTHERN ATRALIA. IT HAS A LOW PALATABILY WHEN MATURE AND REQUIR NSTANT SLASHG OR GRAZG TO BE OF SIGNIFINT E PASTUR.IN THE NORTHERN TERRORY, GAMBA GRASS (ANDROPOGON GAYAN) CURRENTLY OCCURS THE DARW, PALMERSTON AND LCHFIELD SHIR, THE COOMALIE COMMUNY GOVERNMENT, AND THE MARY RIVER, DOUGLAS RIVER AND LOWER DALY RIVER REGNS. IT IS SPREADG RAPIDLY ALONG ROADSIS AND OTHER DISTURBANCE RRIDORS THROUGHOUT THE NORTHERN PARTS OF THE TERRORY, AND OM THE IAL FTATNS THEN VAS RELATIVELY UNDISTURBED VEGETATN, CLUDG SIGNIFINT NSERVATN AREAS (E.G. WILDMAN RIVER NATNAL PARK AND KAKADU NATNAL PARK). IN QUEENSLAND, THE FIRST NATURALISED SPECIMEN OF GAMBA GRASS (ANDROPOGON GAYAN) WAS LLECTED 1992, OM BAMAGA ON CAPE YORK PENSULA. SCE THIS LLECTN WAS MA, HAS BEEN FOUND  S TO THE NORTH AND SOUTH OF WEIPA, ALONG THE ROAD TO HOPEVALE THE COOKTOWN AREA, THE LAKELAND DOWNS AREA, AT SUDLEY TO THE EAST OF WEIPA, AT KALGA STATN ABOUT 80 KM NORTH OF LRA, ON THE MCHELL RIVER NEAR KOWANYAMA, AT KENLL RIVER WT OF COEN, AT BATAVIA DOWNS, ON ABORIGAL LAND THE NORTHERN PENSULA AREA (NPA) AND NEAR MAREEBA. IT HAS ALSO BEEN REPORTED TO BE SPREADG TO PARKS AND RERV NORTHERN QUEENSLAND (E.G. HEATHLAND NATNAL PARK AND KEATGS LAGOON CONSERVATN PARK). IN WTERN ATRALIA GAMBA GRASS (ANDROPOGON GAYAN) IS CURRENTLY MALY FOUND THE AREA AROUND KUNUNURRA THE KIMBERLEY REGN.COMPARED WH NATIVE GRASS, GAMBA GRASS (ANDROPOGON GAYAN) FORMS MUCH TALLER AND NSER STANDS OF VEGETATN THAT DRY OUT LATER THE SEASON, AND THEREFORE VAD AREAS NTA MUCH HIGHER FUEL LOADS THAN NATIVE GRASSLANDS. NATIVE GRASS FUEL LOADS ARE TYPILLY 3-5 TONN PER HECTARE WHILE GAMBA GRASS (ANDROPOGON GAYAN) FUEL LOADS ARE TYPILLY 11 TO 15 TONN PER HECTARE, AND MAY SOMETIM BE AS HIGH AS 30 TONN PER HECTARE. THE HIGHER FUEL LOADS SUPPORT MORE EQUENT FIR THAT ARE MUCH MORE TENSE THAN THOSE FUELLED BY NATIVE GRASS, AND THE FLAME HEIGHTS OF FIR STANDS OF GAMBA GRASS (ANDROPOGON GAYAN) FIR ARE TYPILLY HIGHER THAN THE TREE NOPY. THE HOTTER FIR HAVE THE POTENTIAL TO SEVERALY DAMAGE NATIVE PLANTS AND MAY ALSO DRAMATILLY ALTER THE STCTURE OF THE NATIVE VEGETATN OVER TIME. IN PARTICULAR, THE NUMBER OF TRE ARE RCED RULTG A CHANGE OM NATIVE WOODLAND TO EXOTIC GRASSLAND.THIS IS ILLTRATED BY THE FACT THAT GAMBA GRASS (ANDROPOGON GAYAN) VASN HAS BEEN SHOWN TO PRODUCE A PHENOMENON KNOWN AS A "GRASS-FIRE CYCLE" NORTHERN ATRALIA. THIS OCCURS WHEN THE AMOUNT OF GAMBA GRASS (ANDROPOGON GAYAN) CREAS, G AN CREASE THE AMOUNT OF FUEL, WHICH CREAS FIRE EQUENCY AND FIRE TENSY. THIS THEN A CLE NATIVE TREE AND SHB VER, WHICH AIDS FURTHER GAMBA GRASS (ANDROPOGON GAYAN) VASN AND  THIS WAY A SELF-PERPETUATG CYCLE OF VASN VELOPS. FOR EXAMPLE, AT ONE SE THE NORTHERN TERRORY,  WAS FOUND THAT GAMBA GRASS (ANDROPOGON GAYAN) VASN HAD ED A 53% RCTN THE NATIVE TREE NOPY THE LAST 12 YEARS. IF THIS SORT OF CHANGE OCCURS ON A LANDSPE SLE, ULD TOTALLY TRANSFORM NORTHERN ATRALIA'S SAVANNAS OM WILDLIFE-RICH WOODLANDS TO BLOGILLY IMPOVERISHED MONOCULTUR OF GAMBA GRASS (ANDROPOGON GAYAN) RRYG REGULAR HOT FIR. BEE OF THIS, VASN OF GAMBA GRASS (ANDROPOGON GAYAN) NORTHERN ATRALIA HAS BEEN NOMATED FOR LISTG AS A "KEY THREATENENG PROCS" UNR THE ENVIRONMENT PROTECTN AND BDIVERSY CONSERVATN ACT.GAMBA GRASS (ANDROPOGON GAYAN) VASN HAS ALSO BEEN SHOWN TO HAVE A VARIETY OF OTHER IMPACTS ON NATIVE FLORA AND FNA, AND EVEN ESYSTEM FUNCTN. FOR EXAMPLE, VAD AREAS GENERALLY HAVE ABOUT HALF THE NUMBER OF PLANT SPECI AS NATIVE GRASSLAND AREAS. ITS HIGHER BMASS ALSO ALTERS THE STCTURE OF VAD AREAS AND N CHANGE ESYSTEM PROCS SUCH AS NUTRIENT CYCLG AND WATER CYCLG. DAILY WATER E THE WET SEASON IS THREE TIM HIGHER GAMBA GRASS (ANDROPOGON GAYAN) VAD S THAN IS NEARBY NATIVE GRASSLANDS, AND THIS RC THE DRAAGE OF WATER THROUGH THE SOIL PROFILE. THOUGH GAMBA GRASS (ANDROPOGON GAYAN) VAS AND TABLISH MORE EASILY WH DISTURBANCE, N GROW QUE READILY BURNT AND UNBURNT SAVANNA HABATS REGARDLS OF WHETHER THE SOIL SURFACE IS BROKEN. IT IS ALSO NOT RTRICTED TO SAVANNAS, AS HAS BEEN REPORTED TO VA UPLAND MELAL FORTS, RIPARIAN AREAS, AND WETLAND AND FLOODPLA MARGS NORTHERN ATRALIA.AS WELL AS AFFECTG ESYSTEMS, AND THE NATIVE FLORA AND FNA GENERAL, GAMBA GRASS (ANDROPOGON GAYAN) IS ALSO A SIGNIFINT THREAT TO NUMERO RARE AND ENDANGERED NATIVE PLANTS AND ANIMALS. ITS IMPACT ON THE FOLLOWG SPECI THE NORTHERN TERRORY HAS BEEN DOCUMENTED: THE ENDANGERED ATLAS MOTH (ATTAC WARDI). THIS SPECI IS FOUND ONLY  THE DARW REGN, WHERE S LARVAE SURVIVE REMNANT GRASSLANDS. INVASN OF GAMBA GRASS (ANDROPOGON GAYAN) IS A THREAT BEE  DISPLAC THE NATIVE FOOD PLANTS OF THIS SPECI AND FUELS HOTTER FIR WHICH STROY S HABAT. THE VULNERABLE CYS ARMSTRONGII. THIS SPECI IS ENMIC TO THE NORTH-WTERN RNER OF THE NORTHERN TERRORY. WHILE IS LOLLY MON, APPROPRIATE FIRE REGIM ED BY THE VASN OF GAMBA GRASS (ANDROPOGON GAYAN) AND OTHER EXOTIC GRASS IS A MAJOR THREAT. MORTALY EXCS OF 50% OF ADULT STEMS PER FIRE EVENT HAVE BEEN RERD WHEN SUBJECT TO FUEL LOADS OF 20 TONN PER HECTARE. THE THREATENED DARW PALM (PTYCHOSPERMA BLEERI). THE DARW PALM IS ONLY FOUND EIGHT SMALL RART PATCH EAST OF DARW, WH THE ALAI AND HOWARD RIVER SYSTEM. IT IS HIGHLY SCEPTIBLE TO THE IMPACTS OF THE SPREAD OF GAMBA GRASS (ANDROPOGON GAYAN) AND ASSOCIATED CHANG TO FIRE REGIM. THE VULNERABLE YELLOW-SNOUTED GROUND GECKO (DIPLODACTYL OCCULT). THIS SPECI APPEARS TO BE RTRICTED TO LOWLAND OPEN FORTS THE MARY, WILDMAN AND WT ALLIGATOR TCHMENTS THE NORTHERN TERRORY. ITS HABAT IS PRONE TO WILDFIRE AND IS THREATENED BY VASN OF EXOTIC PASTURE GRASS, PARTICULARLY GAMBA GRASS (ANDROPOGON GAYAN) AND MISSN GRASS (PENNISETUM POLYSTACHYON), WHICH ARE CREASG FIRE TENSI. THE VULNERABLE EASTERN PARTRIDGE PIGEON (GEOPHAPS SMHII SMHII). THE MOST IMPORTANT THREATS TO THIS SPECI ARE THE TER-RELATED CHANG GRASS POSN AND FIRE REGIM ED BY EXOTIC GRASS, CLUDG GAMBA GRASS (ANDROPOGON GAYAN), WHICH WILL AFFECT THE DIVERSY, TIMG AND ABUNDANCE OF SEEDS AVAILABLE AS A FOOD SOURCE. THE ENDANGERED YELLOW CHAT (EPTHIANURA CROCEA TUNNEYI). A MAJOR FACTOR NTRIBUTG TO THE CLE OF THIS SPECI ARE THE CHANG TO S HABAT BROUGHT ABOUT BY THE WISPREAD FTATN OF GAMBA GRASS (ANDROPOGON GAYAN) AND OTHER WEED SPECI THE FLOODPLA HABATS THAT CURRENTLY OCCUPI. THE ENDANGERED HELICTER SP. GLENLUCKIE CREEK. THIS UNSCRIBED SPECI IS ONLY KNOWN OM THREE POPULATNS SAVANNA WOODLANDS NEAR DARW. IT MAY BE SCEPTIBLE TO VASN OM PERENNIAL WEEDY GRASS SUCH AS GAMBA GRASS (ANDROPOGON GAYAN), WHICH ARE LIKELY TO SMOTHER DIVIDUALS, ALTER FIRE TENSY AND/OR EQUENCY, AND AFFECT RECMENT.OTHER IMPACTS

Scientific NameAndropogon gayan KunthFayGrameae (South Atralia)Poaceae (Queensland, New South Wal, the ACT, Victoria, Tasmania, Wtern Atralia and the Northern Terrory) Common Namblutern, gamba grass, Rhosian andropogon, Rhosian bluegrass, tambi grassOrigNative to most of sub-Saharan Ai (i. CultivatnGamba grass (Andropogon gayan) is monly cultivated northern Atralia as a high yieldg pasture grass. Naturalised DistributnGamba grass (Andropogon gayan) is beg wily naturalised northern Atralia.

ANDROPOGON GAYAN

Gamba grass (Andropogon gayan) n also va a variety of other natural habats om wetland margs through to upland savanna and is also particularly abundant along the banks of waterurs and along very large, long-lived (i.

INVASIVE ANDROPOGON GAYAN (GAMBA GRASS) IS AN ESYSTEM TRANSFORMER OF NROGEN RELATNS ATRALIAN SAVANNA

Reproductn and DispersalGamba grass (Andropogon gayan) reproduc by seed. Environmental Impact Gamba grass (Andropogon gayan) is a ser threat to savannas of northern Atralia and is regard as an environmental weed the northern parts of Wtern Atralia, the Northern Terrory and Queensland.

It has a low palatabily when mature and requir nstant slashg or grazg to be of signifint e the Northern Terrory, gamba grass (Andropogon gayan) currently occurs the Darw, Palmerston and Lchfield Shir, the Coomalie Communy Government, and the Mary River, Douglas River and Lower Daly River regns. In Queensland, the first naturalised specimen of gamba grass (Andropogon gayan) was llected 1992, om Bamaga on Cape York Pensula.

GERMPLASM LLECTNS AND MORPHOLOGIL STUDI OF ANDROPOGON GAYAN–ANDROPOGON TECTOM PLEX SOUTHWTERN NIGERIA

In Wtern Atralia gamba grass (Andropogon gayan) is currently maly found the area around Kununurra the Kimberley regn.

Compared wh native grass, gamba grass (Andropogon gayan) forms much taller and nser stands of vegetatn that dry out later the season, and therefore vad areas nta much higher fuel loads than native grasslands.

Native grass fuel loads are typilly 3-5 tonn per hectare while gamba grass (Andropogon gayan) fuel loads are typilly 11 to 15 tonn per hectare, and may sometim be as high as 30 tonn per hectare. The higher fuel loads support more equent fir that are much more tense than those fuelled by native grass, and the flame heights of fir stands of gamba grass (Andropogon gayan) fir are typilly higher than the tree nopy.

GAMBA GRASS (ANDROPOGON GAYAN)

In particular, the number of tre are rced rultg a change om native woodland to exotic is illtrated by the fact that gamba grass (Andropogon gayan) vasn has been shown to produce a phenomenon known as a "grass-fire cycle" northern Atralia. This occurs when the amount of gamba grass (Andropogon gayan) creas, g an crease the amount of fuel, which creas fire equency and fire tensy.

This then a cle native tree and shb ver, which aids further gamba grass (Andropogon gayan) vasn and  this way a self-perpetuatg cycle of vasn velops. For example, at one se the Northern Terrory,  was found that gamba grass (Andropogon gayan) vasn had ed a 53% rctn the native tree nopy the last 12 years.

ANDROPOGON GAYAN KUNTH

If this sort of change occurs on a landspe sle, uld totally transform northern Atralia's savannas om wildlife-rich woodlands to blogilly impoverished monocultur of gamba grass (Andropogon gayan) rryg regular hot fir.

Bee of this, vasn of gamba grass (Andropogon gayan) northern Atralia has been nomated for listg as a "key threateneng procs" unr the Environment Protectn and Bdiversy Conservatn grass (Andropogon gayan) vasn has also been shown to have a variety of other impacts on native flora and fna, and even esystem functn. Daily water e the wet season is three tim higher gamba grass (Andropogon gayan) vad s than is nearby native grasslands, and this rc the draage of water through the soil profile. Though gamba grass (Andropogon gayan) vas and tablish more easily wh disturbance, n grow que readily burnt and unburnt savanna habats regardls of whether the soil surface is broken.

ANDROPOGON GAYAN*

It is also not rtricted to savannas, as has been reported to va upland melal forts, riparian areas, and wetland and floodpla margs northern well as affectg esystems, and the native flora and fna general, gamba grass (Andropogon gayan) is also a signifint threat to numero rare and endangered native plants and animals. Invasn of gamba grass (Andropogon gayan) is a threat bee  displac the native food plants of this speci and fuels hotter fir which stroy s vulnerable Cys armstrongii. While is lolly mon, appropriate fire regim ed by the vasn of gamba grass (Andropogon gayan) and other exotic grass is a major threat.

INVASIVE ANDROPOGON GAYAN (GAMBA GRASS) ALTERS LTER POSN AND NROGEN FLUX AN ATRALIAN TROPIL SAVANNA

It is highly sceptible to the impacts of the spread of gamba grass (Andropogon gayan) and associated chang to fire vulnerable yellow-snouted ground gecko (Diplodactyl occult).